The interrelationship between baroreflex sensitivity expressed in ms/mm Hg (BRS) or in Hz/mm Hg (BRSf), carotid wall thickness (IMT), and age was investigated in hypertensive and normotensive subjects with respect to the mean inter-beat interval (IBI) and blood pressure (BP). BP monitoring was performed in 25 treated hypertensives (Hy; 47.4±9.2 years of age) and 23 normotensives (Norm; 44.5±8.1 years). IMT was measured by ultrasonography. BRS and BRSf were determined by the spectral method (five-minute non-invasive beat-to-beat recording of BP and IBI, Finapres, controlled breathing at a frequency of 0.33 Hz). Significant differences between Hy and Norm were detected in IMT (Hy: 0.624±0.183, Norm: 0.522±0.070 mm; p<0.01), BRS (Hy: 3.5±1.6, Norm: 5.7±2.3 ms/mm Hg; p<0.01), BRSf (Hy: 0.005±0.002, Norm: 0.009±0.004 Hz/mm Hg; p<0.01), systolic BP (Hy: 131±21, Norm: 116±17 mm Hg; p<0.01) and diastolic BP (Hy: 77±16, Norm: 64±12 mm Hg; p<0.01). A significant correlation was found between age and IMT (Norm: 0.523, p<0.05; Hy+Norm: 0.419, p<0.01), age and BRS (Norm: -0.596, p<0.01; Hy+Norm: -0.496, p<0.01), age and BRSf (Norm: -0.555, p<0.01; Hy: -0.540, p<0.01; Hy+Norm: -0.627, p<0.01), age and IBI (Hy: 0.478, p<0.05), age and diastolic BP (Hy: -0.454, p<0.05), BRS and IMT (Hy+Norm: -0.327, p<0.05) and BRSf and IMT (Hy+Norm: -0.358, p<0.05). Hypertensive patients have increased IMT and decreased BRS and BRSf. The positive correlation between age and IMT and the negative correlation between age and BRS and BRSf are in agreement with the hypothesis that the age-dependent decrease of baroreflex sensitivity corresponds to the age-related structural changes of the carotid wall. Using two indices of baroreflex sensitivity, BRS and BRSf, we could show that baroreflex sensitivity in hypertensives is lower not only due to thickening of the carotid wall, but also due to aging.
The reproducibility of baroreflex sensitivity (BRS in ms/mmHg; BRSf in mHz/mmHg) determined with respect to the coherence between the variability in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and inter-beat intervals (IBI) or heart rate (HR) was tested. SBP and IBI were recorded beat-to-beat for 5 min (Finapres, breathing at 0.33 Hz) in 116 subjects (aged 19-24 years) sitting at rest three times in periods of one week. BRS and BRSf was determined by a cross-spectral method in a frequency range of 0.067-0.133 Hz. Eight indices were evaluated: BRS0.1Hz/BRSf0.1Hz - the value at a frequency of 0.1 Hz; BRSCOHmax/BRSfCOHmax - the value at maximum coherence; BRSWcoh/BRSfWcoh - weighted value with respect to coherence values in the whole frequency range; BRSWPcoh/BRSWPcoh - weighted value with respect to coherence for frequencies with coherence above 0.5. All indices revealed a lower intraindividual than interindividual variability (p<0.001). The individual mean values of BRS or BRSf correlated (p<0.001) with standard deviation of their individual values for all indices. Baroreflex sensitivity is an individual characteristic feature with the highest reproducibility at its low values in spite of its resting variation. Reproducibility is not influenced by modification of the spectral method used.
The increased prevalence of obesity in children and its complications have led to a greater interest in studying baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) in children. This review of BRS in children and adolescents includes subtopics on: 1. Resting values of BRS and their reproducibility, 2. Genetics of BRS, 3. The role of a primarily low BRS and obesity in the development of hypertension, and 4. Association of diabetes mellitus, BRS, and obesity. The conclusions specific to this age follow from this review: 1. The mean heart rate (HR) influences the measurement of BRS. Since the mean HR decreases during adolescence, HR should be taken into account. 2. A genetic dependency of BRS was found. 3. Low BRS values may precede pathological blood
-pressure elevation in children with white-coat hypertension. We hypothesize that low BRS plays an active role in the emergence of hypertension in youth. A contribution of obesity to the development of
hypertension was also found. We hypothesize that both factors, a primarily low BRS and obesity, are partially independent risk factors for hypertension in youths. 4. In diabetics, a low BRS compared to healthy children can be associated with insulin resistance. A reversibility of the BRS values could be possible after weight loss.